The national curriculum for English states that ‘A high-quality education in English will teach pupils to speak and write fluently so that they can communicate their ideas and emotions to others, and through their reading and listening, others can communicate with them.’
With this in mind, we must ensure high quality handwriting is taught and monitored effectively in our schools.
Key Stages 1 and 2
Handwriting is an integral component of the English programmes of study for Key Stages 1 and 2. The programmes describe two dimensions of writing:
- Transcription (spelling and handwriting)
- Composition (articulating ideas and structuring them in speech and writing)
The curriculum demands that teaching should develop competence in both dimensions, as writing down ideas fluently depends on effective transcription. This relationship defines the role of handwriting as a functional tool in the writing process.
The national curriculum programmes of study outline the statutory handwriting outcomes for each year of the curriculum and also provide additional non-statutory guidance.
The curriculum states: ‘Writing down ideas fluently depends on effective transcription: that is, on spelling quickly and accurately through knowing the relationship between sounds and letters (phonics) and understanding the morphology (word structure) and orthography (spelling structure) of words. Effective composition involves articulating and communicating ideas, and then organising them coherently for a reader. This requires clarity, awareness of the audience, purpose and context, and an increasingly wide knowledge of vocabulary and grammar. Writing also depends on fluent, legible and, eventually, speedy handwriting.’
Within the curriculum overview, there are clear points at which pupils should be taught handwriting. The national curriculum begins at Key Stage 1 and assumes a good level of development in the EYFS.
Year 1
In relation to handwriting, pupils should be taught to:
- Write from memory simple sentences dictated by the teacher that include words using GPCs and common exception words taught so far
- Sit correctly at a table, holding a pencil comfortably and correctly
- Begin to form lower-case letters in the correct direction, starting and finishing in the right place
- Form capital letters
- Form digits 0-9
- Understand which letters belong to which handwriting ‘families’ (ie letters that are formed in similar ways) and to practise these
The curriculum is clear in the non-statutory guidance, that: ‘Handwriting requires frequent and discrete, direct teaching. Pupils should be able to form letters correctly and confidently. The size of the writing implement (pencil, pen) should not be too large for a young pupil’s hand. Whatever is being used should allow the pupil to hold it easily and correctly so that bad habits are avoided. Left-handed pupils should receive specific teaching to meet their needs.’
It is important to note that ‘Pupils’ writing during year 1 will generally develop at a slower pace than their reading. This is because they need to encode the sounds they hear in words (spelling skills), develop the physical skill needed for handwriting, and learn how to organise their ideas in writing.’
Letter families are key for pupils to understand the formation of each letter, and should be taught throughout any handwriting teaching.
Year 2
The year 2 curriculum is clear that children ‘should be able to form individual letters correctly, establishing good handwriting habits from the beginning.’ It goes on to say that ‘Pupils’ motor skills also need to be sufficiently advanced for them to write down ideas that they may be able to compose orally. In addition, writing is intrinsically harder than reading: pupils are likely to be able to read and understand more complex writing (in terms of its vocabulary and structure) than they are capable of producing themselves.’
In relation to handwriting, pupils should be taught to:
- Form lower-case letters of the correct size relative to one another
- Start using some of the diagonal and horizontal strokes needed to join letters and understand which letters, when adjacent to one another, are best left unjoined
- Write capital letters and digits of the correct size, orientation and relationship to one another and to lower-case letters
- Use spacing between words that reflects the size of the letters
The non-statutory notes in the curriculum state ‘Pupils should revise and practise correct letter formation frequently. They should be taught to write with a joined style as soon as they can form letters securely with the correct orientation.’ This should be interpreted as children being taught correct letter formation until they are fully secure in producing letter shapes correctly in their independent work. Only when children are fully secure in producing letter shapes correctly should they be taught to join the letters where it makes sense to do so.
The curriculum demands that pupils should be taught to ‘develop positive attitudes towards and stamina for writing by: writing narratives about personal experiences and those of others (real and fictional)’.
Years 3 and 4
By year 3, pupils would be expected to write down their ideas with a reasonable degree of accuracy. Therefore, it is important that educators ensure pupil’s writing skills are consolidated through regular practice and appropriate instruction. By year 3, pupils would be expected to join their handwriting (where it makes sense to do so) and their writing should be fast enough to keep pace with what they want to say.
Pupils should be taught to:
- Use the diagonal and horizontal strokes that are needed to join letters and understand which letters, when adjacent to one another, are best left unjoined
- Increase the legibility, consistency and quality of their handwriting [for example, by ensuring that the downstrokes of letters are parallel and equidistant, and that lines of writing are spaced sufficiently so that the ascenders and descenders of letters do not touch]
The non-statutory notes are clear that handwriting should continue to be taught, with the aim of increasing the fluency with which pupils are able to write down what they want to say.
Years 5 and 6
During years 5 and 6, pupils would be expected to write their ideas down quickly. This would be achieved through ongoing handwriting teaching and monitoring to ensure joins are used correctly and that legibility remains a priority.
Pupils should be taught to write legibly, fluently and with increasing speed by:
- Choosing which shape of a letter to use when given choices and deciding whether or not to join specific letters
- Choosing the writing implement that is best suited for a task
The non-statutory guidance is clear that pupils should ‘continue to practise handwriting and be encouraged to increase the speed of it, so that problems with forming letters do not get in the way of their writing down what they want to say. They should be clear about what standard of handwriting is appropriate for a particular task, for example, quick notes or a final handwritten version. They should also be taught to use an unjoined style, for example, for labelling a diagram or data, writing an email address, or for algebra, and capital letters, for example, for filling in a form’.
Key Stages 3 and 4
Key Stage 3 (years 7, 8 and 9)
Once a child begins at secondary school (year 7), they would be expected to be able to write accurately, fluently, effectively and at length for pleasure and information.
Key Stage 4 (years 10 and 11)
Pupils are expected to be able to write clearly, accurately and coherently.
There are no additional statements for the teaching of handwriting in Key Stage 3 or 4.
Teaching and fonts
The national curriculum programmes of study outline the statutory handwriting outcomes for each year of the curriculum and also provide additional non-statutory guidance.
The national curriculum for English places high importance on handwriting but does not provide guidance on how it should be taught. It also does not specify a particular font style though we know that a simple, mostly joined style, is implied – ‘understand which letters, when adjacent to one another, are best left un-joined‘ – but this guidance has been ignored by the many schools teaching a continuous cursive style. Evidence suggests that the school should be consistent in the teaching of its chosen font style. A Sassoon type font is ideal where exit strokes are used in appropriate letters. The recent evidence is clear that a lead-in stroke should not be taught in handwriting.
Statutory assessments
Handwriting requirements are part of the statutory assessments for Writing at the end of Key Stage 1 (Year 2, non-statutory) and Key Stage 2 (Year 6, statutory).
In relation to KS2 assessment:
‘Using the English writing framework
- The three standards in this framework contain a number of ‘pupil can’ statements (see below). To judge that a pupil is working at a standard in English writing, teachers need to have evidence which demonstrates that the pupil meets the standard described overall.
- A pupil’s writing should meet all of the statements within the standard at which they are judged. However, teachers can use their discretion to ensure that, on occasion, a particular weakness does not prevent an accurate judgement being made of a pupil’s attainment overall. A teacher’s professional judgement about whether the pupil has met the standard overall takes precedence. This approach applies to English writing only.’
For those working toward the expected standard, the pupil can:
- Write for a range of purposes
- Use paragraphs to organise ideas
- In narratives, describe settings and characters
- In non-narrative writing, use simple devices to structure the writing and support the reader (e.g. headings, sub-headings, bullet points)
- Use capital letters, full stops, question marks, commas for lists and apostrophes for contraction mostly correctly
- Spell correctly most words from the year 3/year 4 spelling list, and some words from the year 5/year6 spelling list
- Write legibly
For those working at the expected standard, the pupil can:
- Write effectively for a range of purposes and audiences, selecting language that shows good awareness of the reader (e.g. the use of the first person in a diary; direct address in instructions and persuasive writing)
- In narratives, describe settings, characters and atmosphere
- Integrate dialogue in narratives to convey character and advance the action
- Select vocabulary and grammatical structures that reflect what the writing requires, doing this mostly appropriately (e.g. using contracted forms in dialogues in narrative; using passive verbs to affect how information is presented; using modal verbs to suggest degrees of possibility)
- Use a range of devices to build cohesion (e.g. conjunctions, adverbials of time and place, pronouns, synonyms) within and across paragraphs
- Use verb tenses consistently and correctly throughout their writing
- Use the range of punctuation taught at Key Stage 2 mostly correctly (e.g. inverted commas and other punctuation to indicate direct speech)
- Spell correctly most words from the year 5/year6 spelling list, and use a dictionary to check the spelling of uncommon or more ambitious vocabulary
- Maintain legibility in joined handwriting when writing at speed
For those working at greater depth, the pupil can:
- Write effectively for a range of purposes and audiences, selecting the appropriate form and drawing independently on what they have read as models for their own writing (e.g. literary language, characterisation, structure)
- Distinguish between the language of speech and writing* and choose the appropriate register
- Exercise an assured and conscious control over levels of formality, particularly through manipulating grammar and vocabulary to achieve this
- Use the range of punctuation taught at key stage 2 correctly (e.g. semi-colons, dashes, colons, hyphens) and, when necessary, use such punctuation precisely to enhance meaning and avoid ambiguity.
*The national curriculum states that pupils should be taught to use the diagonal and horizontal strokes that are needed to join letters and understand which letters, when adjacent to one another, are best let unjoined.
Exemptions for handwriting difficulties
Teachers can use their discretion to ensure that, on occasion, a particular weakness does not prevent an accurate judgement being made of a pupil’s attainment overall. This can be implemented for children with a handwriting difficulty who are secure in all other aspects of writing.
Conclusion
The national curriculum is clear in that handwriting must be taught throughout KS1 and KS2. The additional guidance is clear that a simple style should be taught – a Sassoon type font works well for this as it uses exit strokes for individual letters which then gives the potential to join appropriate letters. The curriculum is clear throughout that pupils should be taught which letters are best left unjoined (these can be referred to as break letters). The curriculum implies a consistent way of teaching handwriting across a whole school or setting.
The NHA ‘Developing a Handwriting Policy’ document is ideal for creating and implementing a whole school handwriting policy which will ensure consistency for pupils and clarity for educators.
Other links: OFSTED (2022) Research and analysis – ‘Research Review Series: English’, GOV.UK.
